Kant philosophy Essay

For this case, I will be using Kantian ethics to pinpoint the rationally correct action to take. Before discussing Kantian ethics in relation to the case, we must first explore what Kantian ethics is. Kantian ethics comes from the deontological school of thought, which focuses on the moral correctness of the act in itself (Johnson, 2013). This means that the judgment on the act is done a priori. This is contrasted to the consequentialist school of thought, which focuses on the results of an act as the factor that would qualify the rightness or wrongness of an action (Sinnott-Armstrong, 2012). A consequentialist would make a judgment on an act a posteriori. Kant utilized a concept called the Categorical Imperative, which states that that which is moral is that which is rational (Johnson, 2013). Therefore, a moral act is one that follows from a rational agent. An immoral act, as it follows, is that which is irrational (Johnson, 2013). Another significant factor to consider in Kantian ethics is that the most important value that they seek to preserve is autonomy. Contrasted to a Utilitarian, a Kantian would promote autonomy rather than happiness. The Categorical Imperative contains three main elements. One element of the Categorical Imperative is the formula of universalizable maxims. The formula of universalizable maxims states that a right action is that which can be universalizable (Johnson, 2013). The question here would be: would an action be acceptable if everyone did it? To test this, a person would need to imagine a twin world wherein that action is the norm for everyone. Then that person would need to see if such a world is conceivable and rational. Another important factor for this experiment would be to see if the universalized act would inhibit other people’s freedom. If the universalized act or maxim doesn’t infringe on other’s freedom then this act is acceptable (Johnson, 2013). Another element under the Categorical Imperative is the Humanity Formula. This concept states that humanity is a means in itself and should never be treated merely as a means to an end (Johnson, 2013). This means that each human being must be respected because he or she has his or her own inherent autonomy and dignity (Johnson, 2013). This formula stipulates that a person may not be manipulated by another as a means to achieve a particular goal. Realistically, though, you cannot help but use people as means to an end (Johnson, 2013). This happens everyday, for example, when we use shop clerks to purchase food. In this example, we are using the shop clerks as a means to get the ends, which is food. The reason as to why this particular case of using a person as a means to an end is acceptable is because of the idea of consent. A shop clerk has freely chosen to pursue his or her own line of work and this entails being a means through which people can purchase food. Thus, the shop clerk consents to being a means to this particular end. The third element under the Categorical Imperative is the Kingdom of Ends Formula. This formulation states that an agent exists in a community that is made up of equally rational agents who have just as much say in the maxims that become universalized (Johnson, 2013). The universalized maxims become the law and every agent in this community agrees to conform his or her actions to the law. B. DISCUSSION OF CASE For this particular case, we are dealing with the maxim of taking cognitive enhancing drugs to increase productivity output. If we were to test this particular maxim using the formula of universalizability, we would have to imagine a world wherein every person would do this particular action. In this world, everyone would use cognitive enhancing drugs to meet deadlines or to finish their work faster. In the face of stress, instead of overcoming the obstacle through the person’s own hard work and will, he would only merely need to pop a pill. As mentioned in the case, this kind of accepted behavior could create a new kind of neuro-society. This new neuro-society would be filled with people popping pills like Adderall or Ritalin to focus on their work on hand. There is essentially nothing wrong with increasing the ability of a person to focus on a particular task. The downside of this kind of society would be that it would become a society of drug dependency. Designer drugs like the ones previously mentioned would act as a quick fix for people. Instead of relying on their own wills and capacities, people would be relying merely on the drug to be able to produce an output. This dependency goes against the value the Kantian holds above everything else: autonomy. By allowing a drug-dependent society to prosper, we would be limiting our own freedom by slowly becoming more dependent on drugs. In this world where using cognitive enhancing drugs is the norm, imagine if the drug would suddenly be taken away. People would not know how to focus or get their work done without the drug. In the face of stress, people wouldn’t know how to act since they have lost the drug that previously did all the work for them. This is because they supplemented their own shortcomings with the drug instead of developing themselves into becoming fully functioning and autonomous adults who could deal with their problems. This maxim being universalized would stunt our own development and would, in turn, create an infantilized society. This thought experiment aims to show that the maxim of using cognitive enhancing drugs does not pass the test of universalizability. Secondly, in this world with this universalized maxim, the using of cognitive enhancing drugs may become a norm not only for college students or adults, but also for children. Children are vulnerable in the sense that their autonomy is still limited. Because a Kantian would uphold autonomy as the most important value, he or she would feel an obligation to protect vulnerable parties who have limited autonomy. In this world, there may be over-achieving parents who want their children to be competitive in the world of academics. If the using of cognitive enhancing drugs becomes the norm, then these kinds of parents might try to get their children to take these kinds of drugs to get ahead in their studies. A Kantian would see that the children must be protected from these kinds of actions since they cannot utilize their autonomy in the full capacity. Another point for this argument is that if children are put on cognitive enhancing drugs from an early age, then they will grow up never knowing what it is like to function without these drugs. Furthermore, they will become extremely dependent and they will never be able to realize their own full potential and capacity. This means that their autonomies will always be somewhat limited. Therefore, a world wherein cognitive enhancing drugs are the norm, not just for adults but also for children, must be avoided. Therefore, based on the twin world test, the use of cognitive enhancing drugs should not become a norm since it creates a dependent society and it creates an opportunity for vulnerable parties to remain vulnerable and never reach their full autonomies. Thirdly, another reason as to why this particular maxim would not be acceptable for a Kantian is because it goes against another element of the Categorical Imperative: the Human Formula. As previously stated, this formulation asserts that humans should not be used merely as means to an end. This formulation includes disallowing agents in using themselves as a means to an end (Manninen, 2006). The act of taking cognitive enhancing drugs reduces the person to merely a means to an end. Instead of respecting one’s own capacity to achieve one’s full potential, a person merely reduces himself to something akin to a machine that will produce output in the quickest way possible. Instead of the person using his or her own capacity in facing the challenge, the act of using a cognitive enhancing drug will circumvent the process of self-development and will skip the opportunity for personal growth. In this manner, the person will accomplish the short-term goal of churning out an output without actually developing his or her own talents. As noted in a journal article by Manninen (2006), when drugs are treated as a miracle solution to the stressful emotions an agent is feeling, this stops the agent from growing and overcoming the stress by himself or herself. This sacrifices an important aspect of being human: the capacity to engage in personal development. This stunts personal growth and, in turn, society is left with people who do not know how to deal with problems by themselves. Instead, they turn to using drugs as an emotional crutch. In conclusion, we see how a Kantian would view the maxim of using cognitive enhancing pills in response to stress or a heavy workload. Since the most important value for the Kantian is autonomy and the development of this, he or she would see this maxim as something that limits and stunts autonomy. Therefore, to make this maxim into a universalized law would be irrational. In my opinion, I think that Kantian ethics did pinpoint the morally correct response in this case. This is because the using of cognitive enhancing drugs would reduce the agent to a mere means. This is not morally correct since human beings are not mere means nor machines but rather rational agents who deserve respect and the chance to grow. References: Johnson, R. (2013). Kant’s Moral Philosophy. In E. Zalta (Ed. ), The stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/kant-moral/ Manninen, B. A. (2006). Medicating the mind: A kantian analysis of overprescribing psychoactive drugs. Journal of medical ethics, 32(2), 100-105. Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2012). Consequentialism. In E. Zalta (Ed. ), The stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato. stanford. edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/archinfo. cgi? entry=consequentialism.

Revisiting The Golden Era Of Hindi Cinema

A country of 1.2 billion people, the ancient civilisation of India is a melting pot of cultures and juxtapositions. It is a land that will assault your senses all around. The vibrant colours, exotic aromas, cacophony of sounds, and the amalgamation of flavours will both enchant and offend. Within it more than 20 native dialects are spoken. But in this diversity there is unity found in the common language of their movies. Such is the power and hold over audiences of Indian films. In the space of a darkened cinema, everyone is equal momentarily.The social and economic divides that separate rickshaw driver from the IT engineer are broken and ignored. It provides an escape from reality, the ultimate dream factory where for those three hours, you can be whoever you want to be. The restraints of status, social standing, wealth, religion, education are for a moment forgotten as the audience are compelled to lose themselves in the world playing out before them on the large screen.As the larg est producer of films, the Indian film industry beats both Hollywood and China in terms of the number of films churned out each year. Having accrued such a status through the production of more than 2000 films in India’s various languages, it is no wonder that the magical spell cast upon Indian cinema goers is a hard one to break.The Golden Era Of Films : 1940s to 1960sThe Indian film industry is one of the most well-known film industries in the world today. Indian films are regularly being featured in the top film festivals and Indian actors/actresses are being flooded with offers from Hollywood. Much of the credit for this popularity goes to the film makers of the 1940s to the 1960s who made some evergreen classics that made the world sit up and take notice of Indian films. This era marked the beginning of evolution of Indian Cinema though various genres. We had mainstream film makers like Raj Kapoor who, in the most conservative and formulaic era, made some of the most inv entive, personal and entertaining films such as Awara  (1951) and Shree 420 (1955).Mother India, which many consider the greatest movie of Indian cinema, was made in 1957. The film got India its first nomination to the Oscars as the best foreign film. Some of the other must-watch movies of this era are Mahal (1949), Do Aankhein Barah Haath (1957), Madhumati (1958) and Mughal-e-Aazam (1960). Movies of various genres, including romance, drama, comedy and tragedy, were made, each with great depth in storyline, memorable characters and heart-touching narration. Another acclaimed director and writer of this era was Mr. Kamal Amrohi. His movies had an expressionist direction with a firm structure and poetic style throughout, that is missing from the modern Bollywood movies. He only made four movies altogether and seeing Mahal it’s clear that his main career was as a poet.The film is full of lyrical images, depth of distance and contour and characterisations that inter-relate on s everal levels at once — the logical, the psychological, the emotional and the metaphysical. The Golden Age of Hindi cinema that blossomed with the studio era of the 1950s and ebbed by the early 1970s is one of India’s greatest artistic achievements. A lot of Hindi films made during that time, could hardly be called Hindi films.Rather, Hindustani, a mixture of Urdu and Hindi, was the lingua franca of the silver-screen—a reflection of a country unified by a fascinatingly diverse heritage with linguistic influences from Sanskrit, Farsi, Bengali, Arabic, Panjabi, and a myriad of others. Urdu in films was remarkably accessible—holding a place for any viewer in every genre. True, it is unlikely the entire audience understood each word in those songs. However, in this manner, film and music could be educational for those who did not–a unique way of preserving the culture they reflected back on. As parallel cinema diva Shabana Azmi aptly quipped,â€Å"If you compare today’s songs with the songs of the 1960s and 1970s, then definitely today’s songs are according to the demand. But if you see, Hindi films used to protect the Urdu language as they used it, but it is slowly dying and I feel bad for it.† The legacy of Urdu will continue to add to the allure and nostalgia of old films for generations to come. For the loss of Urdu is more than the mere loss of vocabulary. Without Urdu in Hindi films, we have lost our own andaaz –the manner with which we once communicated our thoughts and feelings, our decorum, and a rich, meaningful ornamentation in  expressing ourselves that can never be replaced. Famous movies of this era being Mughal-e-Aazam, Pakeeza etc.Some of the most critically acclaimed Hindi films of all time were produced during this period. While commercial Hindi cinema was thriving, the 1950s also saw the emergence of a new Parallel Cinema movement. Though the movement was mainly led by Bengali cine ma, it also began gaining prominence in Hindi cinema. Early examples of Hindi films in this movement include Chetan Anand’s Neecha Nagar (1946) and Bimal Roy’s – Do Bigha Zameen -Two Acres of Land (1953).Some of the internationally acclaimed Hindi filmmakers involved in the movement included Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, Shyam Benegal and Vijaya Mehta. These films won several awards nationally and internationally and Their critical acclaim, as well as the commercial success, paved the way for Indian neorealism and the Indian New Wave. Subrata Mitra, who debuted as a cinematographer with this film, has been a great influence on India and the world in the field of cinematography.Ray is considered as one of the greatest directors of all-time. Satyajit Ray and Ritwik Ghatak went on to make many other great art films, and other talented directors such as Mrinal Sen, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Mani Kaul and Buddhadeb Dasgupta followed suit. In the 1960’s, Indira Gandhi, as the Information and Broadcasting Minster, further promoted offbeat cinema with the official Film Finance Corporation supporting such movies. The films received great commercial success as well as critical acclaim. Guru Dutt’s Pyaasa (1957) and Kagaz Ke Phool (1959) are among the finest movies ever made.This era was a golden age for Indian music as well, giving us melodious music that continues to inspire music directors till date. Playback singers such as Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhonsle, Kishore Kumar, Mohd Rafi and Manna Dey reached the zenith of their careers during this era. We had some of the most amazing and charismatic actors like Dilip Kumar, Raj Kapoor and Dev Anand who cast a spell on the Indian audiences with their fresh style and acting talent. The most beautiful women ever seen on celluloid, such as Madhu Bala, Vyjayanthi Mala, Meena Kumari and Waheeda Rahman, graced the screen during this period. They had not just beauty but great acting  talent, which helped them play the most challenging roles with utmost ease and perfection.Overall, the 1940s – 60s was a period that revolutionized Indian cinema. Prior to this period, most movies centered around mythological, historical or family related themes. Romance was portrayed in the most beautiful and sensitive manner during this period, and in a society where almost everyone had arranged marriages, it brought about a fresh wave of thought among the youth. The films depicted everyday lives as well as larger social issues in a subtle, yet highly impactful manner, and remain as inspiration for generations of film makers to come.Parallel Cinema : Rise and Fall What is Parallel Cinema?The Indian New Wave, commonly known in India as Art Cinema or Parallel Cinema as an alternative to the mainstream commercial cinema, is a specific movement in Indian cinema, known for its serious content, realism and naturalism, with a keen eye on the socio-political climate of th e times. This movement is distinct from main stream Bollywood cinema. The term â€Å"parallel cinema† has started being applied to off-beat films produced in Bollywood, where art films have begun experiencing resurgence. This led to the emergence of a distinct genre known as Mumbai noir, urban films reflecting social problems in the city of Mumbai. In contemporary cinema, the term â€Å"parallel cinema† is being used to describe any out of the box movie.Parallel cinema essentially is made up of the non-mainstream films that are not made for commercial successes or garnering profits. These are usually low-budget movies, and focus on the social or political issues prevalent in our nation. The tradition of parallel cinema can be dated long back into the 1920s and 1930s. The history of Indian Cinema cannot be told without the mention of India’s biggest director ever, Guru Dutt. He has been time and again accredited with ushering the golden era of Indian cinema. His work was purely artistic and lyrical in terms of content and enjoyed commercial success. He was loved by the audience despite the fact that his work was based on subjects that were considered taboo at that time.Fall Of Parallel Cinema : Some Hindi filmmakers such as Shyam Benegal continued to produce realistic Parallel Cinema throughout the 1970s, alongside Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani and Vijaya Mehta. However, the ‘art film’ bent of the Film Finance Corporation came under criticism during a Committee on Public Undertakings investigation in 1976, which accused the body of not doing enough to encourage commercial cinema. The 1970s thus saw the rise of commercial cinema or the so called â€Å"popular cinema†. Many movies from â€Å"popular cinema† never actually become popular; then why such movies are called popular? They are out of mind as soon as they are out of sight.Cinema critics have euphemistically termed such movies, which are primarily intended to entertain and make big bucks, though commercial, as â€Å"popular†. â€Å"Popular† cinema, the term used for cinema which is â€Å"less† thought provoking but is more leisurely and mellow-dramatic. Popular cinema emerged in the ‘60s and ‘70s and since then has been successful. Popular may be less in intellectual content, but enjoys more commercial success than parallel cinema. It has always been loved by the masses for the escape it offers from the gruelling daily life. There have been fewer times when parallel cinema has enjoyed the kind of success and acceptance popular cinema does and gets. Parallel cinema has always been liked by a particular kind of audience, a trend that fortunately seems to be changing now.â€Å"Parallel† cinema, a category of cinema very advantageously crafted for the inclusion of realistic movie; a kind of realism that doesn’t get mass acceptance because of how hard hitting it can be. Parallel cinema has been in existence since the emergence of Indian cinema. It all started when no specific category existed and all kinds of movies were given equal importance. Unapologetically, the audience showed preference to a certain category which had elements of fantasy and mushiness. As a result, a new class of cinema emerged which promised to be real and thought provoking; a cinema that was proud of being â€Å"artsy†.The reason why parallel cinema is not an equally blessed child might lie in the fact that it is â€Å"real†. It shows the reality and truth behind things. Cinema is considered a means to escape from reality and paying money to see that same reality in a more vivid manner doesn’t appeal to many. In today’s Bollywood scenario, quantity (of moolah) finds precedence over quality (of scripts) and slapstick, verging-towards-obscene  comedies and typical love stories with the boo-hoos and item songs are the super-mega-blockbusters.The films nowadays cater to multiplex audience and they are bound to make a film which sells, no matter even if it is rubbish. The advent of numerous channels, the consumerist culture and the expansion of urban India has given birth to urban-centric audiences. The cinema which once portrayed class struggles and protests against hypocrisy, has given way to more ‘entertaining’ cinema. The situation is rather bleak for the lover of serious and meaningful cinema. The filmmakers who make serious films have failed to make the cut in today’s times and the classics are lost.The Changing Times : In these 100 years of cinema, one can see how society has developed because cinema in some way or another reflects society. Cinema is seen like any other industry now. The acceptance of different film genres surely doesn’t seem like a big thing now as it was in its early years. Even the mindset of the audience is changing with the evolution of cinema. Film makers thus have the courage to make such movies now, and people are more than willing to see and appreciate these films for their intriguing content.There are now a number of directors which enjoy â€Å"popular† success with films that are high on â€Å"intellectual† content too, like Vishal Bhardwaj, Anurag Kashyap and Dibakar Banerjee to name a few. Actors are more than willing to take the risk and be a part of the kind of cinema that has a number of constraints involved. It’s not going to be long when the lines will be blurred between what is â€Å"popular† and what is â€Å"parallel† cinema. . Both commercial and parallel cinema can co-exist, but only if we want!Today’s Need : We need a platform for both these cinemas i.e Commercial or parallel cinema to co-exist. Both these genres need equal recognition. A lot of people are not aware of the less popular, art or parallel cinema. We need to educate people about the existence/history and idea of such cinema. The common masses need to be educated about the various aspects that go behind the making of a film. To encourage and promote young talent to make more meaningful cinema : more and more youths are taking up a career in films.They do not have a common platform to showcase their talents or get enough  credit or recognition for their films. We need a common platform for an exchange of ideas to take place. We need to promote today’s generation and encourage them to watch and learn from the film legends of the past, who were the pioneers of various genres of Indian cinema and brought international fame to the Indian film industry. Preserve, Promote, showcase and educate the common masses today, about the golden era of classic cinema , that brought India, international recognition back in the day.Aim : To design a mixed use public space showcasing, preserving and promoting the cinematic heritage of the Golden Era Of Hindi film industry i.e from 1940’s- 1970’s.Object ive : To design a unique tourist attraction for all visitors coming to Mumbai to experience various aspects of Hindi cinema and understand the process of film making in an entertaining way. To bridge the gap between the film industry and the general audiences and to promote young artists and talent by creating a common platform for the exchange of thoughts and ideas and educating them about the rich Cinematic heritage of Hindi cinema.To develop a Hindi Cine-museum to Preserve, Promote, showcase and educate the common masses today, about the Golden Era of classic cinema along with the parallel cinema that co-existed during that time, through exhibition, articles, posters, sets etc. To create platforms to showcase both Commercial and parallel cinema and their co-existence. We need to educate people about the existence/history and idea behind such cinema.

The Grapes of Wrath: A Warning to the System

The Grapes of Wrath, author John Steinbeck create s and shifts tone to show the failure of the economic system and how that failure causes people's anger anger to grow inside them, like grapes, growing ripe for harvest. At the beginning of the chapter, the tone is positive. He describes California in the spring, using positive diction such as â€Å"beautiful† and â€Å"full green hills† (Paragraph 1).H e also describes al of the crops, how the tree limbs â€Å"bend gradually under the fruit† because t here is so much of it. Steinbeck makes nature seem perfect; the hills are â€Å"round and soft as break SST† and the men are â€Å"of understanding and knowledge† (paragraphs 2 and 3). He creates a sense o f hope which is only to be destroyed later on in the chapter. In paragraph 5, the fruit begins t o ripen. This is when money is introduced: â€Å"Hell, we can't pick ‘me for that. † Right away, with the nit reduction of money, the tone s hifts from positive to negative.Words such as â€Å"hell† and cool Ours like â€Å"black† and â€Å"red† are used. The reason for this shift in tone IS because the starving pee people are angry because there is an over abundance of food that is just being wasted. Paragraph pH 12 simply says â€Å"And the smell of rot fills the country. † This describes all of the wasted food, the e word â€Å"rot† insinuates that the economic system stinks. Sanchez 2 The last few paragraphs are a warning to the system. In paragraph 13, Steins eek uses parallelism: â€Å"Burn coffee for fuel in the ships [s] laughter the pigs and bury t me† (paragraph 13).He does this to emphasize how this was deliberately being done just so a profit could be made. He writes about how crime â€Å"goes beyond denunciation† (paragraph 14) . People are so desperate for food that they are willing to do anything to get it. Children die b cause â€Å"a profit cannot be take n from an orange. † All of these horrible things lead up to the la SST paragraph of the chapter; the warning to the system. People are trying to fish for potatoes that have just been dumped in the river, but the guards hold them back.They are trying to grab t he dumped oranges, â€Å"but the kerosene is sprayed. † Eventually, the hungry become furious. Food the at they could be eating is being wasted simply because a profit cannot be made from it. Their anger IS growing inside of them like the â€Å"grapes of wrath,† growing ripe for the harvest. The book title itself is used in this chapter. It is used to describe how people's wrath is growing like grapes, â€Å"growing heavy for the vintage. † This indicates that some wing big is going to happen: the harvest.

GLOBAL ECONOMIC Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

GLOBAL ECONOMIC - Assignment Example The other reason for the difference s in GDP per capita is differences in productivity among countries with the level of productivity in a country being depicted by high GDP per capita symbolized by Australia and UK in the chart above. China, Indonesia, and Russia have the same level of labour productivity explaining the similarity in GDP per capita. The other reason that could be the cause for the differences in the GDP per capita is the working hours of the workers in the given countries with the country that has the highest GDP per capita having high working hours compared to the other countries. Australian and UK could have high working hours compared to the working hours in China, Russia, and Indonesia depicting the difference in GDP per capita in the graph. Four reasons can explain the differences between the GDP of the five countries including amount of physical resources, quality and quantity of human resource, the size of the workforce, and the technology level (WORLD BANK, 2013). China could have been increasing the amount of physical capital, promoting highly skilled and trained human resource, increasing workforce size, and advancing technology from 1994 to 2012 as depicted by the rise in GDP over the years. The size of workforce, advancement in technology, training and equipping the human resource, and amount of physical resources seems to have been almost constant in Indonesia, Australia, and Russia due to the slight changes in GDP growth from 1994 to 2012. There are, however slight positive changes in skills, technology, workforce, and physical resources in UK showed by the increase from 1994 to 2007, but these factors may have slightly fallen to result in the down ward trend in the GDP in UK from 2001 to 2012. The possible economic effects for the differences in the GDP growth are three including the quality of governance, which are the mechanisms and institutions that aid in decision-making and authority dispensation in a

Peer review-corrections Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Peer review-corrections - Coursework Example News of vicious treatment in the media hit the waves such as that of Sean Bell, Michael Brown and Eric Garner. Rodney King’s death in 1991 put modern day lynching of the black man in the spotlight. It put across a black man defined by the infamous beatings and role of media in the society and ignited an issue that has stayed ablaze. Some people believe Blacks are unfairly mistreated by police; whose duty is to give protection (Maurantonio, 2014). A study was done by Gallup poll on public perception of how Blacks felt treated by the police. Tests of whether Blacks and Hispanics were more likely than whites to believe the police mistreated blacks. Also, if individuals who reported race relations were good or more likely poor believed police were vicious to blacks (Gabbidon & Higgins, 2008). Results showed that in the public opinion race played a significant role in how Blacks and Latinos were viciously treated by police. A study showed that African Americans and Hispanics are dissatisfied with how police protect and serve the neighborhoods and cities they live in. African Americans hold low regard to police officers than the whites (Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). This is due to a preconceived idea or notion with regards to areas that experience high crime. African Americans are less satisfied when it comes to personal security. There is increased behavior of racial profiling by police and documented racial disparities done to minority citizens (Cochran & Warren, 2012). A study data from BJS police Public Contact Survey on police behavior showed that, when stopped by a white officer, Black males and female hold a negative behavior evaluation of the officer. Also, a same race officer was reviewed with minimal racial profiling. Officers face challenges such as fear and stress while confronting a dangerous individual and savagely violence can result. Questions would arise in the media as to

Sports and Entertainment Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Sports and Entertainment Management - Case Study Example The most important part of this whole project was the redevelopment of East Village. People were beginning to be drawn away from East Village because they were running out of reasons to be there. The location was such that was once very lively but it had little left to attract local people and the visitors. This area required some serious redevelopment and its prayers were answered when Padres choose it for the construction of their new ballpark. It was the very first time that redevelopment was made integral part of a project in which a sports facility was being publicly financed. Further, the Padres made redevelopment a part of the Memorandum of Understanding in which they obtained the approval of public. This meant that even politicians were unable to disallow this project as they had to do what the people wanted. The road to success was not a smooth one for Padres. They had had to face many bumps in the form of oppositions and lawsuits by the people who had to relocate. The prota gonist of this case, John Moores, faced a very difficult time because of all the lawsuits and the delays. There was a two year delay in the construction in the area which was now known as the Ballpark District. Conditions had significantly changed in the two year period due to 9/11 and the bursting of the Internet Bubble. One of the setbacks was the departure of Larry Lucchino. Lucchino kept the people of San Diego, particularly the diehard baseball fans, involved in the process so that their support and sympathy was always with the team. This was very difficult to maintain as Lucchino left. Moores handled the matter with great patience and maturity. There were times when it felt like Moores might leave San Diego and take his team to another city. Instead, Moores kept his head poised in the game in which he was involved. He knew that the redevelopment of East Village was not only good for the area itself, but it was also the biggest argument in favour of his project. PETCO Park was an enormous success. From this experience, one can learn that there are always numerous extraneous circumstances that are to be accounted for while pursuing a project of such magnitude. No matter how careful one is, there is always a potential of oversight. ‘There is no such thing as a perfect research’. We can look at the experiences of others and we should learn from them. Similar mistakes must not be repeated. We can clearly see that Moores’ team selection was brilliant but not flawless. He made sure that the team that was working on this project was diverse. Therefore, everyone brought something new to the table. However, it was a slip by one of the team members that resulted in the allegations of corruption. Moores, of course, was not guilty but the two year delay was like a punishment for him too. A punishment for a wrong he did not commit himself, but one of his team members did. Perhaps, everyone else who was involved in the project also suffered greatly. But one tends to think that maybe Moores could have done something to avoid all of this. There might have been no corruption if the team members had a clear knowledge of their limits and boundaries. Moores could

Improving Driver Safety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Improving Driver Safety - Essay Example Teens who start driving are excited about the freedom that driving gives them, and are less inclined to think seriously about safety issues. Communicating safety messages to teens can be problematic, simply because they're teenagers and may chafe at what they see as restrictions on their freedom. This means that to improve teen driving safety, education programs must deliver safety messages in ways that are specifically targeted to teens and which do not make them feel they are being 'talked down to'. Driving education programs for teenagers should be designed to stimulate interest in road safety and should clearly show them the possible consequences of unsafe driving. To help keep teens interested in the program, a range of activities should be designed that are fun and interactive while sending clear messages about the importance of road safety. Activities can include practical demonstrations which teens can take part in, and interactive film clips in which they can make choices for the characters portrayed. Educating teens on the practice of safe driving will include information on speeding, seat belts, drinking and driving, and how to handle distractions while driving.

Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui - Xidi and Hongcun Essay

Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui - Xidi and Hongcun - Essay Example However, in the villages of Xidi and Hongcun the ancient and traditional Huizhou-style houses are still well preserved. The houses which belong to the period of the Ming and Qing dynasties are considered to be architectural marvels, specially in terms of the design, material and craft used, as also from the environmental and social context they represent (english.cntv.cn, 2010). The villages thus represent a style of human settlement that came into vogue during a feudal period that symbolized a prosperous trading economy. The buildings and the street patterns in the two villages signify the socio-economic structure of a well established and long-lasting period of Chinese history. With the Huizhou businessmen natives of the time, that is, during the period of the Ming and Qing dynasties, strongly supporting the economic development of their hometowns, the areas became culturally prosperous. The houses constructed during that period displayed much aesthetic elegance and uniqueness. A n umber of prominent village landscapes also came to be established. A unique feature of life and culture of these ancient villages in southern Anhui is that their progress occurred generally independent of agriculture. Thus, in terms of their awareness, lifestyle and taste, the people of these areas were generally of a higher level than the common peasants and other common citizens. Thus, a strong cultural environment was created. They laid great emphasis on education since it was their constant endeavor to maintain a close interaction with the literati and officials. The villagers respected Confucianism. The picture below (Fig. 2) depicts an ancient Xidi clan temple. Fig. 2. An ancient Xidi clan temple (Source: http://www.travelpod.com/travel-blog-... Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui - Xidi and Hongcun The ancient villages of Xidi and Hongcun located in the southern Anhui province of China are World Cultural Heritage Sites. They are marvelous examples of well preserved traditional non-urban settlements most of which have disappeared or transformed during the last century. They possess architectural complexes of much historical and artistic value. Heritage sites everywhere are prone to environmental degradation while the inhabitants of those areas could likely experience socioeconomic problems. The preservation of such heritage sites requires active participation by the local government, international funding agencies such as UNESCO and the World Bank, local communities and the visitors who throng the sites. Another key issue related to tourism development is enhancement in tourism transportation which could lead to pollution caused by transportation (Jiang et al., 2010). A car is the mode of transport commonly used by tourists which has a high impact on the environment due to carbon dioxide emissions. An important issue related to social demography is the migration of villagers from Xidi and Hongcun to cities either as a result of the economic prosperity they have come to enjoy because of tourism or in the face of their inability to meet the competition from the same industry. Residents' perceptions and attitudes need to be periodically assessed, and conditions that encourage the local populace to continue to live and thrive in their hometowns should be created.

The Construction of New York City's Subway System Essay

The Construction of New York City's Subway System - Essay Example The New York City subway system disperses in Manhattan, Queens, Brooklyn, and Bronx (Ruhl Web). Most significantly is the fact that the New York City subway system is not all-underground as only a few tracks run underground with the rest manifesting some levels of elevation (Range 19). The Times Square stands out as the busiest station of the New York City Subway. The City of New York owns the New York City Subway system with further leasing to the New York City Transit Authority for management. Many lines in the subway offer both express and local services where fare payment is usually through the Metro card. However, children and the disabled enjoy free rides and reduced fare respectively. As stated herein, the subway system proves to be cost-efficient in US where the Citizens Budget Commission reported in 2011 affirmed its effectiveness where it records the lowest cost per passenger. This paper will address the construction of the New York City subway system in details. It will eq ually consider the significant inventions and renovations that have taken place since its first inception. The construction of the New York City subway system entailed a lot of engineering work, masonry, electrical, human and machine labor. As such, apart from requiring well-trained engineers, the construction equally consumed huge capital investment. Indeed, since it was one of its kinds in New York a lot of lobbying, prior planning, legislation, and objective design was necessary in serving the intended purpose of effective transportation. As such, various subsections under the mandate of variant subcontractors undertook the construction of the New York City subway system. The construction process involved excavations, support of railway tracks, and tunnel work. It also included masonry work, plastering, construction, reconstruction of sub-surface structures, restoration of street surface, erection of steel, and painting of tunnel walls (Deyo Web). Consequently, the construction o f the NYC subway system adopted five types of construction (The Interborough Transit Company 35-40). This included the construction of the typical subway close to the surface with steel bulb-angle columns supporting the tacks and flat roof and "I" beams for supporting the roof. Then there was the construction of the flat roof typical subway where steel bulb-angle columns support the concrete construction. Additionally, there was the construction of the elevated road on steel viaduct and the concrete lined tunnel that involved concrete lined open cutwork and rock tunnel work. Lastly, the construction of the NYC subway system also encompassed the cast-iron tubes. These modes of construction took place in various sub sections (New York City subway Web). For a fact, the construction of the NYC subway system took many years to come to fulfillment. Notably, the talks on building an underground rail system in New York started as early as 1863. However, the main stakeholders shelved this th ought for some time, as it was until later in 1868 that Alfred E. Beach had to rely on the New York City Central Underground Company charter to build a test section of tunnel 350 feet long under Broadway. Subsequently, the Commodore Vanderbilt mandated the New York City Rapid Transit Company to initiate the sub-surface railroad construction in 1872. However, this plan had to wait for the passing of the referendum in 1894 to generate financial

Public Relation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Public Relation - Essay Example is severely criticized of poor service or of that case on controversial mobile phone hacking ,admittedly done by News of the World against murdered schoolgirls and those families of terror victims in London, which led its closure after 168 years of business operation and serving about 7.5 million readers (Adam, 2011). 1. What has caused British public opinion to turn against Rupert Murdoch’s News International in such a spectacular fashion and how effective do you consider the company’s efforts at managing the crisis have been? Give reasons for your answer. What are the key lessons of this case for business in general? 2. According to Damian Carrington (2011), gaining public support is the key to successfully introduce novel technologies such as nuclear power and genetically modified food. Do you agree? Why or why not? What role should public relations play in this regard, bearing in mind the observation of George Monbiot (2011) that public distrust of corporations is partly due to perceptions of ‘industry spin’? 3. What light does the story of vodafail.com shed on public relations in the new era of social media? How can companies protect their reputations in the digital age? (Grunig and Hunt 1984) would be most appropriate to building public trust in new technologies. Opinions that are publicized or broadcasted can powerfully affect trade, public policy, and social relations. It can destroy or can reconstruct, depending on the ideation, framework, ideological influences, experiences, level of education, social precept, norms, needs, emotional causes, including idiosyncrasies. Human beings, considered as social animals, have their respective value-orientation, needs, emotions, abilities and personalities. Value-orientation refers to how a person attributes some importance to a subject or object of opinion. The latitude of discussion of an issue is widespread depending on the number of persons, stakeholders or persons that would be affected.

Plato, Gorgias Essay Example for Free

Plato, Gorgias Essay Introduction  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Plato’s Gorgias is actually the story of virtue. Plato was evidently trying to resolve the ever lasting debate of what virtue was and what elements constituted virtue. In his dialogue with Gorgias, Socrates has not unilaterally concluded what virtue was; he has rather discussed what it could be. I totally agree with Plato who states that â€Å"the good is not the same as the pleasant, my friend, nor the evil as the painful† (Plato), because to be pleasant means to be subjective, and the notion of good is evidently an objective philosophical category. Virtue may be determined through the prism of its separate elements. Even when each of us individually determines what virtue is, there are still certain specific societal norms which may help us distinguish between good and evil. Plato has actually created several grounded suggestions as for what virtue was by discussing its separate elements: power, justice, temperance, and art.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Rhetoric is to justice what cookery is to medicine† (Plato). This may initially seem surprising, as virtue and rhetoric are the two completely different philosophical categories. Moreover, there can hardly any connections between these two. However, Plato links them through the importance of rhetoric to justice, and through the importance of justice to the virtue. Objectively, the whole dialogue between Socrates and Gorgias comprises several separate discussions which are connected by one common topic: virtue. Plato was trying to depict virtue as the system of separate attributes and elements, and to discuss them through the prism of those elements: art, temperance, evil, and good. This is why Plato has concluded that good could not be equaled to pleasure due to its objectivity as opposed to the subjectivity of pleasure. Plato started Socrates’ dialogue with the discussion of art of rhetoric, and has led it to the issue of the greatest good. As virtue is determined and is directly connected to the greatest good, it is crucial that people know what this greatest good is. â€Å"That good, Socrates, which is truly the greatest, being that which gives men freedom in their own persons, and to individuals the power of ruling over others in their several states† (Plato). That was the vision of the greatest good as expressed by Gorgias. This is the individual vision of Gorgias, which may not always be accepted by others. As a result, how do we determine the difference between the false and the true arts? How do we determine what false and what truthful knowledge is? These were the questions raised by Plato in his Gorgias, and this is where the philosopher again implied that the greatest good was an objective, and not subjective philosophical category. Good and evil are the two objective categories which can even be taught or learnt. Subjective categories can hardly be learnt, this is why Plato implies that good is objective. Only objective philosophical categories can be learnt by others and can be perceived in a manner expected by other members of the society: â€Å"so he whom you make a rhetorician must either know the nature of the just and unjust already, or he must be taught by you† (Plato).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In his work, Plato speaks much about evil. Evil is opposed to good, and is also considered to be an objective philosophical category. According to Plato, evil is rooted in the wrongful and shameful acts. The seriousness of evil can either be determined by the extent of shame the person experiences, or by the severity of physical pain the person feels. It is interesting that this is the only position which is unilaterally accepted by all participants of the conversation. â€Å"Then I said truly, Polus that neither you, nor I, nor any man, would rather, do than suffer injustice; for to do injustice is the greater evil of the two† (Plato). Plato explicitly determines what the greatest evil is, and Socrates’ opponents have but to agree with him. Pain is subjective, and being involved into evil does not mean experiencing pain. Evil is the integral element of the discussion of virtue. There cannot be any effective discussion of what virtue is, without trying to define what evil can be. The importance of evil as philosophical notion is in its being linked to other crucial notions within the framework of virtue discussion. Politics, power, temperance – a philosopher cannot evaluate these categories away from evil. As Plato concludes that injustice and intemperance are the two greatest evils, he not only confirms the philosophical objectivity of evil, but he once again returns to the issue of pleasant and good: pleasant cannot always be good, and evil cannot always be pain. There is clear distinction between subjective and objective philosophical categories, and this is the key to understanding the implications of moral standards in Plato’s society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As Plato speaks about good, evil, justice, temperance, power, and other important philosophical categories, he pursues the ultimate aim of his discussion and his lifelong philosophy: to define what virtue is. Those who participate in Socrates’ discussion, actually participate not in the dialogue, but in the brilliant argument upon the relevance and objectivity of these categories. Nonetheless, the objectivity of power, temperance, and justice is not debated: these also constitute the objective notion of virtue. As evil is not always pain, and good is not always pleasant, Plato also tries to show that â€Å"a man should be temperate and master of himself, and ruler of his own pleasures and passions† (Plato). Thus, a person should realize what common good is, what pleasures he is to suppress and to temper his passions. This knowledge of good and evil is the objective realization of societal standards and norms. This is the realization of how good or evil impacts our existence. Plato uses this key comparison between pleasant and good to show that he was correct in his assumption: virtue is the objective notion, and it can be determined in universal philosophical terms, which are objective, too. The separate objective elements (power, justice, temperance, art) ultimately constitute the philosophical structure of virtue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I absolutely agree with Plato: pleasant is never equal to good, and pain is never equal to evil. Let’s discuss this point in detail. A simple example will help understand my position. We are constantly involved into the process of taking decisions. We must decide how to behave, how to apologize, how to avoid troubles, etc. There are the two distinctive criteria, on which we can base our judgments. First, we can rely on the universally accepted norms of human behavior in our society. Our standards make us aware and teach us how we should behave in certain situations, and what good and evil is. Second, we may also rely on our pleasure, and pleasure may become the main criterion in our decision making. This means that we will not rely on norms and standards of human behavior: we will use extremely subjective measurements which may hardly be accepted by others. Here pleasure is very close to personal tastes, which are never identical. If I enjoy historical documentaries, this does not mean that my brother will like them too; he would hardly accept the situation in which I will constantly watch this type of TV programs, and will not let him watch what he wants. This is where pleasure and good come into action. This is where objectivity and subjectivity of virtue become almost tangible. If I base my decision on pleasure, I will neglect the interests of other family members, and will keep doing what I want. Does this mean that I am good, if I experience pleasure in this situation? Certainly, it does not. Good is not similar to pleasant, and pleasure is a subjective category. What pleases me does not necessarily pleases others, but what is good is usually good for everyone. Being generous, attentive to others, and sharing is good; it is also good for those who need this attention and generosity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This prism of discussion also possesses a different facet. When a person is good to others, does it mean that this person is pleased with such situation? Coming back to the issue with television and documentaries, a person may certainly accept the need to follow the general standards of virtue, good, and temperance. This person will do everything possible to suppress the wishes and pleasures, and to let other family members watch TV. Simultaneously, this need â€Å"to be good† will probably urge the person to step over his inner principles, and to pretend that to be good is pleasant. This person may avoid displaying the displease with such situation, or may not conceal the irritation, but it is evident that to be good for this person is not to feel pleasure of this goodness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What I see as the key element of Plato’s argument, is the need to distinguish between the true and the false elements of virtue, between the objective and subjective standards of our conduct, and between pleasure and good. Plato was also discussing the elements of evil and pain in his work, but these issues seem less relevant to our lives. Evil is always evil, no matter whether it causes pain, but good is not good if it is based on one’s pleasures only.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In his philosophical work, Plato was actually trying to determine what virtue was. The philosopher used a bright parallel between good and pleasant to suggest that good was objective, and pleasant was subjective. The criteria of pleasure are mostly misleading when a person has to decide what good is. The problem is that good is an objective notion, and the standards of good are usually universally accepted within the specific society. Simultaneously, pleasure is a narrow subjective philosophical category. There is no such notion as universal pleasure. If a person pursues pleasure, this person risks being rejected by the society in the way he rejects the principles of objective good and virtue. If a person wants to follow the standards of good, pleasure should be pushed to the background. In this context, good is not always pleasant. The obligation to conform to the norms of the society is not always linked to any pleasant emotions or perceptions. In order to be accepted by the society, a person might need to overstep his personal principles, and to recognize the importance of good, temperance, power, and justice as the integral components of virtue. Ultimately, the person is to praise the objective moral categories, and to put them ahead of subjective perceptions. This is how human virtue works for the benefit of the whole society. Works Cited Plato. â€Å"Gorgias†. Translated by Benjamin Jowett. 1995. ILT Digital Classics. February 14, 2008. http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publicATIONS/Projects/digitexts/plato/gorgias/gorgias.html

European colonization Essay Example for Free

European colonization Essay Religion was a key factor for the European colonization but these events were all started by the Protestant Reformation. The Protestant Reformation triggered the events leading to the persecution of many people in many European countries. The Protestant Reformation was caused by Martin Luther and he opposed the church and made his own Lutheran Church. People all over Europe were inspired to make their own churches and religious beliefs which made religious persecution occur in many of the countries because they tried to suppress the rebellion of the Protestants. Religion had a profound effect on colonization because the Protestant Reformation caused great turmoil which lead to the persecution and conversion of the New World. Certain groups of religions were persecuted for the way they believed such as the Puritans and Huguenots after the Protestant Reformation. The Puritans arose after King Henry split from the Catholic Church because he could not get a divorce from his wife so he made the Anglican Church which led to the creation of these Puritans. The Puritans wanted to purify the Anglican Church of all the Catholic beliefs which caused much of England furious with these people and lead to the persecution of these people. The Pilgrims were a group of Puritans who were known as Separatists who wanted to break away from the Anglican Church and found the colony of Plymouth. Another group of Puritans followed John Winthrop who was convinced there was no future in England for Puritans made a joint-stock company called the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded the colony of Massachusetts with several towns and a capital named Boston. This lead to even more colonization as conditions worsened in England which made thousands flock to the colonies which is known as the â€Å"Great Migration†. Even in these colonies which were found to stop persecution and have religious tolerance there was still persecution and this led to the creation of more colonies and so forth many people were banished from Massachusetts and made colonies of their own due to this religious persecution. The Huguenots were French Protestants which led to colonization of the New World by the French because in that time France was mainly a Catholic country and under King Louis XIV one million people settled South Carolina, while other found sanctuary in Rhode Island, New York, and Virginia. The religious freedom of some of the colonies brought many other people from different countries which increased colonization as well such as the Scots-Irish, Germans, and etc. Religious persecution brought people from all the European empires to the New World. The Spanish and French wanted to convert these â€Å"Indians† in to Catholicism so they could be favored by God as a holy country and were inspired to spread. This was also one of the main reasons the Spanish Monarchs wanted to colonize the New World. There were missions built all over New Spain so they could convert these Natives which indirectly made the Spanish colonies spread throughout much of what is now Latin America and the South-west region of the U. S. There was also a road that linked these missions together is what is now modern day California known as El Camino Real or the Royal Highway which spread the Spanish Colonies. There were also Jesuit priests who went to some of the farthest reaches or most hostile parts of New Spain to convert these Natives which spread these colonies further as the Jesuits built more and more missions in various places that were not yet colonized. These Jesuits also worked with the French to convert these Native Americans to Christianity in the New France region. They were known as â€Å"black robes† by the Natives and the Jesuits tried to live with the Natives and convert them to the Catholic Faith. They also built missions in the New France region making New France larger as they converted more Natives. This increase in land allowed the people to spread and populate more land so more settler arrived. The Spanish and French kingdoms were driven to convert these Native Americans and this allowed them to spread in more and more land available so more people came and colonized New Spain and New France. This urge to colonize and convert was caused the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation made the events and steps which caused the church to be severed and caused conflict and persecution all over the European empires. People were inspired by Martin Luther bravery and made their own churches to defy the Catholic Church as it got weaker. This created the urge for most of the empires to convert the natives and spread. Religion had a profound effect on colonization because the Protestant Reformation caused great turmoil which lead to the persecution and conversion of the New World.

Food in the United Kingdom

Food in the United Kingdom Food of United Kingdom (UK) Introduction United Kingdom is a composition of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Each part of UK has different culture, symbolism and the popular food items. they have some different categories of food (Scottish, Welsh and English cuisine, Northern Ireland cuisine, Anglo Indian cuisine ). This country is influenced by British culture and representive democracy comes from western culture. People of United Kingdom usually use English language. Some of natural resources is produced by this country e.g. coal, chalk, silica, rock salt, silver, gold, and iron ore. UK use 70% of countrys land area and less than 60percent of food eats by the people of this country which they have produce. mostly UK produce some of hybrid dishes like Anglo Indian Chicken Tikka Massala. Mostly people like to eat garlic in their food. Flag of UK The flag has three colour white, red and blue. See blue in sign. A symmetric red cross and the field with the union flag in he canton. The current design of the union jack dates from the union of ireland and great britain 1801. Environment The government of UK try to reduce the waste sent to landfill, wildlife reserves and marine biodiversity and reducing pollution and keep water and air clean. International agreement United Kingdom is indulge in many international agreements air pollution volatile organic compounds. Environment impact on food production Environment put 30 to 40percent effect on drinks, food and tobacco without 59percent of the eutrophication. Dairy products like milk, cheese are the most affected products and some of the less numbers of products which are effected by environment alcoholic drinkd, sweets and some of soft drinks. It also put impact on meats which is almost contributes 4 to 15percent Environment impact on breads and potatoes Mostly breads and the product which are related to this are affected by environment changes which they contribute 3.3percent of the total impact. For this they need wheat, which is an organic production and it is eutrophication more than conventional production. The some of differene between organic and conventional ways of making breads is a use of wheat production Potatoes are the most important part of food. Almost 2 million tones of potatoes used by UK throughout the year and it put less affect on potato, on potato an potato products like chips and snacks are consider significant contribute in it. At last but not least environment put range of effect on food and product types include fresh and processing products. Environment put impact on current trends and in future as well. Furthermore, it put effects on agriculture and water resources. Climate changes Climate of this country has been very controversies and with different polices to make mitigate effects. Climate changes and impact on food choices Changes in climate direct put effect on food choices but they have only limited option for food and drinks which are affected by temperature and weather. Commonly People like to have food in summer is salads and in drinks they love to drink some soft drinks and some time alcohol. climate changes also lead to chemical. Storage and food transport also effect on food safety. Greenhouse Gas (GHS) IS also effect on food production in UK. Impacts of climate on food supply and agriculture Climate data for England Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high  °C ( °F) 6.6(43.9) 6.9(44.4) 9.3(48.7) 11.7(53.1) 15.4(59.7) 18.1(64.6) 20.6(69.1) 20.5(68.9) 17.5(63.5) 13.6(56.5) 9.5(49.1) 7.4(45.3) 13.1(55.6) Average low  °C ( °F) 1.1(34) 1.0(33.8) 2.4(36.3) 3.6(38.5) 6.3(43.3) 9.1(48.4) 11.4(52.5) 11.2(52.2) 9.3(48.7) 6.6(43.9) 3.5(38.3) 2.0(35.6) 5.6(42.1) Average rainfall mm (inches) 84.2(3.315) 60.1(2.366) 66.5(2.618) 56.8(2.236) 55.9(2.201) 62.9(2.476) 54.1(2.13) 66.7(2.626) 73.3(2.886) 83.6(3.291) 83.5(3.287) 90.4(3.559) 838.0(32.992) Average rainy days 13.4 10.4 12.1 10.1 9.8 9.8 8.5 9.4 10.2 11.8 12.5 13.1 131.2 Mean monthly sunshine hours 50.5 67.7 102.5 145.2 189.9 179.4 192.8 184.1 135.0 101.3 65.2 43.9 1, 457.4 Source: Met Office (1971-2000 averages) Agriculture and fisheries are much depend on climate changes. When carbon dioxide and temperature can increase crops in some places. Frequently changes in climate and severity of droughts and floods are make challenges for farmers and also affrct the food safety. Affects of weather on food Weather conditions Impacts Rain fall It affects on pollination, increases the disease risk, lodging of crops It also delayed farming like reducing the cost and quality. Increase food wastage because of custmers choice. High wind Loss of fruits and leaves. closure of UK ports, impacts on farm buildings and it interrupts on UK supply chain and increase the repair bills Snow /hail / hail It leads to livestock causing condition loss, abortion death, crop damage, frost damage. yield loss and lost yield. Heat / drought Increase stress, heat stress, reduction in forage requiring supplymentry feeding Weather impacts on food production Increasing the number of imports and exports in food and agriculture raw material. Price is the most considerable feature affected by weather conditions. Food consumer in UK nad EU are most experience food shortage. However, they are likely experience short to medium term increase food price. Agriculture As I earlier mention that 70 percent of land in UK used for agriculture. This country produse a reduced amount of food it eats. Apart from this, recently they moves towards organic farming to get much profit. there is hiking awareness that farmers have most important role for the British countryside and wildlife. Religion The great number of people in UK belongs to Christianity followed by Muslim religion. There is different types of dietary habits are derived from religious laws. Dietary difference links to different religion is considering when planning a balance diet. Christianity In earlier Christian people used to avoid meats and dietary in during the small period of the year but today its often they eats fish on Friday, they also like to have bread and wine or Holly communion regularly celebration. the meaning of this is related to the body and blood of Jesus Christ depends on the denomination. Islam Muslim fasters in month of Ramadan, they causly avoid pork and alcoholic. In muslim food is catagries as a halal and haram but mostly they prefer to have halal whereas, the list of haram they include pork alcohol and any product that may contains clearify animals fats such as gelatines. Geographical influence Most if the area of England is covered by hills and plains. in a north side there is a chain of mountains. The pennines diving east and west. The biggest natural harbour is in UK called Poole in a south centeral of UK. Agriculture in UK Mostly crops grown in rural side of UK. They grows crops and livestock. They take help from experience farmers, subsides, fertile soil and new technology. Less income and high land prices put bad impact on food production and import and export of the country. Flood Flood risk is becoming major threat in UK, alongside stresses on water UK also Faced problems related water supply. And less river flows in summer. flood reduce the food availability and agriculture income from crop sale. In floods they have emergency food aid at a distance from saving lives in urgent situation. The food while in natural disaster they have prepared canned food. Economic influence Food import by UK from a large number of food groups with the greatest number of share are the fish and shellfish, fruits and nuts, sweeteners, and wine. they import some of the stifling products are bananas, mangoes, coffee, cocoa, olive oil, tropical oil, tea, and spices are the hundered percent marital productions. Regions of UK and their famous dishes Regions Dishes the east midland Faggots the east of England Saffron cake Greater London Jellied eels North east England Panackelty North west England Lanconlinshire sausage South east England Bedfordshire clanger South west England Cornish havva cake west midlands Parmo Yorkshire and the humber Yorkshire pudding Simplistic approach It takes the food supply to the forward by the hiking numbers of population that can be fed. In this matter, they include calorific values, product yields and generate the population size they England can support. On the other hand, they support 1.2billion people through the mono production of tomatoes. In previous time people of United Kingdom used to depend on beef an poultry. On the face of it a lot of people prefer to have crops, and the amount of land is increase because of vegetarian people. Realistic approach Average of per person in UK consume four time food during the day. England farm land requirements are more than the total forest biocapacity but thisis some how lower than the cropland. UK could not achieve self sufficiency by putting more land on food production. They used to focusing on three main components food supply are fishing grounds, cropland and pasture land. Domestic food supply and International food trade Food manufacturing and conjugal food supply trends fails to depicts vulnerabilities having strong financial positions. In past UK is a chief food importer. The most important countries which exports to the UK are also potentially problem to the UK. this country receive food supplies from all over the world. The future of the UKs largest food supplier is further major population growth, resourse pressure countries for suppliers food. Population A country is rely on three factors availability of arable property, population pressure and within reach water. consumption of food making underminded by increasing population growth. While maintaining the intigrety of our ecosystem by ad equate food supply It is considering that foodstuff supply turn back at least two and half millennia. Connection between population and carrying capacity firstly considering by Plato. In every country food is make to feed everybody however this food and the way to produce it, it do not reach to those whoever need this. In recent decades there has been I mpressive growth in food manufacturing. Ethnic methods of cooking British food is considering as unfussy dishes made with the quality of local ingredients which is matched with simple sauces like ketchup and common flavour. They used to producing hybrid dishes. Breeding of animals provide a large variety of food stuff for ingredients. The meat and savoury herb stewing method become common in all over the country. English cuisine traditionally consider as a international full breakfast, fish and chips and Christmas dinner. British food have many regional food like as Scottish, Wales and some others and they have some regional dishes for example Yorkshire pudding, Cumberland sausage and Welsh cake. Concern about the quality and nutritional value of food production lead to create a soil association in 1946. But the development of breedin in plants create a different types of fruits and vegetables. But with the disease of rootstocks still used all over the world for the fruits like as Apples. Since 16th century Christmas dinner table become more popular in England. turkey become more famous on Christmas dinner table, Christmas pudding served for the dessert. They have a fusion of some other types of food from other countries take an instance Chicken Tikka Massala. England and Scotland are those places which we have find the best kippers arbonath smokies. this country encourages the drinking og wine and they also give the word for common food like mutton (mouton) and beef (boeuf). Social and cultural influence Social influence put great impact on eating -: Eating behaviour is directly influenced by social context. there is many reasons behind this but one of them is confirming the behaviour of others and then try to adopt it and it also shared cultural expections and environmental cues. But this will depend on some of other things like how they pay attention and how we are like to acceptance. Taste -: how it influence the taste, texture, flavour, smell and appearance. For example, sweet food have strong sensory appeal means food may be consumed with full of pleasure rather than the source of energy. There is some other example which UKs people consider such as flavoured can be get from breast milk as a flavours from a maternal diets pass through breast milk. Social class It is also put impact on both under ad over nutrition. take an example the people of any india started livig in England tey use to have hybrid meal in which they use different spices this thing impress the English people and they make their national dish is chicken tikka massala. Cultural influence Cultural influence put affect on diet and also the way of making food. it is showing there tradition, beliefs and other aspects. forexample south asian females visit Scotland and they show increase fat intake and it is related with an increased body mass, index and incident of heart disease and type 2 diabetes. National dish of UK-: UK confirming the number one dish of the country which has been listed like roast beef and Yorkshire pudding followed by fish and chips. after a long term argue it become possible that chicken tikka massala included the Englands national dish. Where does the chicken tikka massala come from ? Mostly people say it come from India, other say Birmingham and strongly some people claim that it comes from Glasgow. Recpie of chicken tikka sause Ingredient ginger, garlic, chilli, tomato paste, garam massala, chile de arbol, honey to taste, cayenne, paprika  ½ cup of water, tomato. Method of cooking Stir the ginger, chile, and garlic and cook it for one minute. Add tomato paste, paprika, and garam massala and then cook for one minute. Add tomato and honey according to your taste, chile de arbol or cayenne and half cup of water then cook it. occasionally, until slightly thick. seasoned it with salt and pepper according to your taste. Apart from this Sunday roast which include vegetables, potato, roast beef and mini Yorkshire pudding. Dessert of UK Bread and butter pudding Firstly It comes in England in13th century it is also known as por mans pudding as it is very famous in low class people. for this a lady she put the bread in baking tray and poured the sultanas on it then she combine some eggs, sugar, butter and warm milk which she put on it. Recipe of Bread and butter pudding Ingredients 150g (4 oz) butter 5 slices of white bread 20g (1 1/2 oz) sultanas or currants According to taste caster sugar 1 eggs, beaten 300ml (1 pint) of milk grated nutmeg method of cooking First of all Preheat oven to 190 C / Gas mark 5. Lightly grease a baking dish. And then Butter one side of every piece of bread, then cut slices into triangles. Place half of the bread buttered side up covering the base of the baking dish. Sprinkle sultanas and sugar onto bread, then place the remaining bread on top buttered side up. In a saucepan over medium heat, warm milk until nearly boiling. Remove from heat and combine with eggs, stirring vigorously. Pour the mixture over the bread and allow to soak for ten minutes. Grate nutmeg over the top. Bake in the middle of the oven for 45 minutes until set and lightly browned. Food wastage From 1915, wastage of food is noticeable crises in the country. for controlling this problem has been discussed in newspaper articles, television programme, and news reporters so that they can create awareness in the public issue. then the government of England create a wastage resources action programme (WRAP ) in 2000. A major portion of food waste is come from domestic household, which is in 2007, mostly large number of wastage from Bread slices, apples, and potatoes are correspondingly. A majority of food is avoidable but the other divided approximately equally by food which are manifest (example. . tea bags )or cooking type (like. . potato skins ). Difference between knives from past and present Previous cooking knives Modern cookery knives Kitchens old kitchen and utensils à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Modern kitchen and utensils à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Difference between british cuisine from past and present British cuisine in past British food is always considered as multicultural, a potpourri of electric style. this is because of in past they prejudiced from Romans and in medieval times in French and then sugar comes in England before that they use only honey and fruit juices for sweets. The Scottish food in middle times they have use the cookery books that leave the record in dishes that use in almost every spice in the larder. British cuisine today Before a few year british cuisine start look forward for a new direction. Nouvelle Cuisine, chefs began to look a little closer to home. Even though some of traditional dishes likewise roast beef and Yorkshire pudding, steak and kidney pie, bread and butter pudding, custard tart, treacle tart, spotted dick or fish and chips. Rice and pasta consider as a less consumed food. Today there is more prominence, fresh ingredients in a famous restaurant and in the market of UK. they offer food item related to all over the world. Varieties of food in UK Anglo Indian cuisine Some of Indian dishes consider as a traditional dishes from british cuisine like as roast beef because the addition of Indian style spices such as clove, chilli red or green. Some of the meats are also cooked in the form of curry take an instance fish and meats with Indian vegetables they also use coconut, cream, milk, and yogurt and almonds. Rice dishes and roasts, or curries, and breads they all have individual flavour. Northern irish cuisine This type of food include similarly to the rest of the island of Ireland. Scottish food, the traditional food of Scotland is haggis, neeps and tatties, this food is commonly shares with English cuisine but recipes of its own. Scotland is known for a large quantity of beef, oats, potatoes, as well as sea food. further more, foodstuffs, and large number of whiskies. Welsh cuisine, welsh cawl is the famous food in welsh. This is impressed by other british cuisine. Nevertheless borh beef and dairy cattle are raised widely. Wales is very popular because of its sheep and, lamb is used for welsh cooking. Methods of cooking They have used various cookery methods from a long time like as ; Deep fry, roasting, slow cooker, BBQ, baking, poaching, Microwave, grilling, braising, stewing, stir fry and so on. Popular combinations of food Roast beed Yorkshire pudding + horse raddish Lamb mint sauce Pork apple sauce Chicken bread sauce Breeds in Englnad Gloucestershire old spots This is an English breed of pig. the Gloucestershire old spot known for its docility, intelligence and prolificity. there maternal skills helps to raise big litters of piglet on pasture. Welsh mountain sheep The male sheep have horns, whereas, females are hornless they do not have wool o their legs or face and they have long tails. these are mostly colour differences, but some of them are different breeds. National drinks Gin It is cultural southern, middle class drink, it approximately consumed gin and tonic. Northern Ireland the popularity of irish whisky is a symbol of uniform of the whole Ireland as in the Republic of the Ireland. Soft drinks of the UK Irn bru It is very famous soft drink in Scotland. it outsells coke, pepsi, or it outsellsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ everything. in taste, it is a type of acidic, metallic and tangy, and bit of unnatural, if this drinks comes in a steel vat. it status as a hangover cure is legendary and entirely acceptable. Vimto This drink is made from fruits so the taste of this is natural. from starting vimto originally health cordial because this is made from the juice of grapes, raspberries and blackcurrunts, it also provide the flavour of some herb. this drink is also available as a fizzy pop. Tizzer Tizzer is made by Barr, who also created Irn bru. its a type cherry- ish but some other extra adding of juices. this drink have a ability of making children belch. Lucozade This is made by glucose, it is comes in glass bottles wrapped in cellophane, as the content was specially for medicinal. this drink was sold in the market because to keep up the sugar level of and energy level up. Ribena This soft sip is comparable of penicillin. it is available as a fizzy now and it place in the nations kitchens. Other drinks in UK Drinks in united kingdom Whisky Whisky is a type of distilled alcoholic drinks. Scotch whisky was hidden altars, in coffins. People of England they use to have whisky at night when they smoke from the stills. Because of this use the drink become moonshine. Scotland s famous for whisky production. they have 83 percent export in 2012 which is make a payment over 4.25 billion to the UKs economy. Whisky is two types -: Grain whisky is made from any type of grain Malted whisky is made from primarily from malted barely Classic drinks -: Britisher like to have tea near about 165 million cups of tea consumed by the people of UKs. they also known as a tea drinkers. Soft drinks Juiced water -: it is hunderad percent pure drink with no sugar there is nothing is artificial in this it is just juice, british spring water and dash of natural drinks. Flavoured water -: it is a sugar free fruits drink. it has different flavour like orange ans mandarin, blackberry, lemon and lime, apple and raspberry. Innovation Science in cooking We considering that the ne of the most pleasure of our life, cooking is include science in these days like chemistry, biology, and physics and how they change the flavour of ingredients. it helps to recreating a new dishes. it helps to understand that the pinch of salt or sugar is included in the recipe or there should be different order of mixing the ingredients for a batter. The scientific study of cooking a lot longer previous time than some would like : food chemistry have a long and rich history of processed food from supermarket. It becomes fashion in some chefs claiming claiming to be partly scicentis and food chemist in their kitchen. Molecular gastronomy Food science use to investigate the physical and chemical transformation of ingredients in cooking. molecular food is consider as a modern way of cooking as well as it gets a number of merits from technical innovation in food industry. with this chefs prefer other different term like as culinary physics, experimental cuisine, multi sensory cooking and modernist cuisine. Different food science branches have done different study on different aspect of food such as, food safety, microbiology and preservation. most of the time they concerned with industrial food production and with the disciplines. The molecular gastronomy, all these based on exploring the food science behind the traditional cooking methods. Food presentation technique Component of food presentstion Colours Flavours Textures Decorations Garnish Focal point The support Colours :- vegetables play a vital role in food presentation like with the help of vegetables to create contrast of shape and colour. Flavours :- it can come together because they are close or they compliment with each other. Textures :- it is a critical component of good food production, just as an pleasure of eating. by contrasting soft and firm, silky and rigid texture adds a visual texture. Decoration :- it is edibl

A Vindication of the Right of Women and Woman in the Nineteenth Century

Education of Women in A Vindication of the Right of Women and Woman in the Nineteenth Century      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In two centuries where women have very little or no rights at all, Mary Wollstonecraft and Margaret Fuller appear as claiming voices, as two followers of feminism. Two women separated by a century but united by the same ideals. In these male- dominated societies, these two educated women tried to vindicate their rights through one of the few areas where they could show their intelligence: literature. So, in the 18th century we find Wollstonecraft ´s A Vindication of the Right of Women and in the 19th her successor Margaret Fuller’s Woman in the Nineteenth Century. Two books written with the same purpose: to vindicate the rights of women and to try to create a better situation for women, yet through two differing points of view, the difference of one century. As there are too many points about the rights of women dealt with by these books, I am going to concentrate in one of these vindictive points: the education of women. Throughout this paper, I am going to show how these two women wrote about women education from two different kind of feminism, what they thought about it and how they dealt with this subject. During the 18th century there was little argument for civil and educational rights for women. There was more concern about racial matters than about women status and rights. When Mary Wollstonecraft wrote Vindication of the Right of Woman, she tried to fulfil this lack of civil and educational rights for women. This is a plea to give equality of opportunity to women. The education she promoted was a mixture of information and rational skills. She stresses the importance of educating both sexes together, somethi... ...t, not only a light version of what was taught to boys. Romanticism did not define female nature only in contrast to men. Romanticism does not describe women as the negative counterpart of men. Fuller’s feminism is also romantic because she believed that women could be free by themselves only if they united together but never if united with men. This difference of feminism is based on the different time both of them live on, while in the 18th century women had no rights at all, in the following one they begin to have access to education, so now the following step was to achieve the liberation that Fuller vindicate in her work. BIBLIOGRAPHY Wollstonecraft, Mary. Vindication of the Right of Woman. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. Fuller, Margaret. Woman in the Nineteenth Century and Other Writings. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.   

A Look Into Mechanical Engineering Essay example -- Careers, personal n

The career that I am going to pursue is Mechanical Engineering. The reason why I chose this is because ever since i was little i was always interested in building little cars. I begged by parents to buy me Legos so i could create what ever came to my head. Even there are many types of engineering i want to be the engineer that designs cars. History of Mechanical Engineering The history of mechanical engineering is very broad and dates back to ancient times. In ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes which he had designed ships and invented the Archimedes screw which is still used today ("Wikipedia"). The reason that mechanical engineering dates back so long is that people have a natural tendency to make things better then what it is now to make work more efficient and easier. In the process of making things easier some people come along and make a huge invention that influences others to invent and expand. It is known that the greatest nations throughout history in the world have made the best engineers and inventors. To have engineering and inventing grow in a nation there is one key component. A nation's agriculture has to prosper in order for the growth of better technology, for example the Aztecs in Mexico were technological superior to any other nation in the ancient Americas for the soul purpose that they can focus better on technology instead of hunger. Now in today's world we really don't need our agriculture to prosper in order for our technology to get better because it is funded by the government. Mechanical engineering also is required by war. War is the fuel that drives nations to defend themselves and in order to do this you need engineers to make better weapons and transportation. As with most other techn... ..."100 Years of Improvement?." Daily Fuel Economy Tip. N.p., March 25, 2008. Web. 12 Mar 2010. . Varassi, John. "ASME Releases Report on Future Trends in Mechanical Engineering." ASME.ORG. ASME News Online, Aug. 12, 2008 . Web. 12 Mar 2010. . "Engineers." Bureau of Labor Statistics. United States Department of Labor, December 17, 2009. Web. 12 Mar 2010. . Harmon, Liz. "Mechanical Engineering." Graduating Engineer. Alloy Education, n.d. Web. 12 Mar 2010. . "Mechanical Engineering." Wikipeida. Wikipeida, n.d. Web. 13 Mar 2010. .

Social Darwinism in American Politics Essay -- Social Darwinism Essays

Introduction Social Darwinism is a quasi-philosophical, quasi-religious, quasi-sociological view that came from the mind of Herbert Spencer, an English philosopher in the 19th century. It did not achieve wide acceptance in England or Europe, but flourished in this country, as is true of many ideologies, religions, and philosophies. A good summary of Social Darwinism is by Johnson: In these years, when Darwin's Origin of Species, popularized by Herbert Spencer as "the survival of the fittest, " and applied to races as well as species in a vulgarized form, Social Darwinism, the coming Christian triumph was presented as an Anglo-Saxon Protestant one. Social Darwinism is by no means dead, for vestiges of it can be found in the present. What Is "Darwinism?" Charles Darwin was an English biologist who, along with a few others, developed a biological concept that has been vulgarized and attacked from the moment his major work, The Origin of Species, was published in 1859. An accurate and brief picture of his contribution to biology is probably his own: Evolution is transmission with adaptation. Darwin saw in his epochal trip aboard the ship The Beagle in the 1830s what many others had seen but did not draw the proper conclusions. In the Galapagos Islands, off South America, Darwin noted that very large tortoises differed slightly from one island to the next. He noted also that finches also differed from one geographical location to the next. Some had shorter beaks, useful for cracking seeds. Some had long, sharp beaks, useful for prying insects out of their hiding places. Some had long tail feathers, others short ones. Darwin took copious notes, captured insects and animals and selected plants. These he preserved in jars and took them back to England where he thought about the implications of what he had seen. for almost three decades. What occurred to him was a simple notion: animals, plants, insects, fishes, etc., which were obviously related differed slightly and these differences seemed to be tied in with their ability to survive. Differences, which he called "adaptations," were often related to geographical factors. He also saw something similar in fossils: certainly some fish, sea shells, etc., that died and were covered up by sand, gradually turned to stone, and were caught forever in fossil form. There seemed to b... ...le for a "net" that would not allow any individual to lapse into abject poverty, homelessness on a wide scale, hunger or destitution. However, in the 1980s, Ronald Reagan was elected on a platform which declared that New Deal policies were responsible for poverty, crime, and all other social problems. Government, Reagan kept on repeating, was not any part of a solution to the problem. Government was the problem. Therefore, a good many policies based upon the "net" concept were weakened or simply eliminated. It is not accurate to say that 19th century Social Darwinism, "Reaganomics," New Deal philosophy or its manifestation in the economic policies of President Clinton is now dominant. A fair assessment is that all of these ideologies can be found within our society--as public policy and as belief structure. The ability of conflicting, incompatible social philosophies to live side by side, even within the same person, (cite) explains why there is so much unresolved conflict, why it is difficult for a given bit of social policy to achieve permanence. why, as many have pointed out, there is considerable poverty in the wealthiest society in the world.

Presocratic Philosophy Essay

Although Aristotle’s statement is too slight to serve as a sure foundation for judgment, it seems more likely that Thales was arguing for the broader presence of life forces in the world than most people imagined, rather than that the real in its totality is alive. Anaximander Thales’ younger contemporary from Miletus, Anaximander, born toward the end of the seventh century B. C. E. , found the explanatory principle of things in what he called ‘‘the apeiron,’’ a word that might be translated as ‘‘the indefinite,’’ ‘‘the boundless,’’ or both. This opens up the possibility that the apeiron is both immeasurably large in its temporal and physical extent and also qualitatively indefinite in that it is without measurable inner boundaries. The apeiron is further described, according to Aristotle, as being ‘‘without beginning,’’ ‘‘surrounding all things,’’ ‘‘steering all things,’’ ‘‘divine,’’ ‘‘immortal,’’ and ‘‘indestructible. ’’Some have inferred that Anaximander’s barely concealed purpose was Western philosophy’s first attempt at demythologization. Equally striking is Anaximander’s description of the universe as a closed, concentric system, the outer spheres of which, by their everlasting motion, account for the stability of our earth, a drum-shaped body held everlastingly in a state of equipoise at the center. Whatever the inadequacy in certain details (the stars are placed nearer to the earth than the moon), with Anaximander the science of cosmological speculation took a giant step forward. As far as life on earth is concerned, Anaximander offered another striking hypothesis. The first living things, according to him, were ‘‘born in moisture, enclosed in thorny barks’’ (like sea urchins), and ‘‘as their age increased, they came forth onto the drier part’’ (as phrased by Aetius [first to second century C. E. ]). Pythagoras Although we know that Pythagoras was a historical figure, it is difficult to determine exactly what Pythagoras himself taught. He wrote nothing, and the ideas of other members of the community were attributed to him as a sign of respect and as a way of lending weight to the ideas. Plato and Aristotle rarely assign ideas to Pythagoras himself, although Pythagorean ideas seem to have influenced Plato’s philosophy. Pythagoreans asserted that number is the first principle of all things. They were the first systematic developers of mathematics in the West and discovered that natural events could be described in mathematical terms, especially as ratios. To the Pythagoreans, the â€Å"principle of number† accounted for everything. Number was a real thing. Somehow, numbers existed in space, not just as mental constructs. According to Pythagorean doctrine, the entire universe is an ordered whole consisting of harmonies of contrasting elements. The Greek for â€Å"ordered whole† is cosmos. The Pythagoreans were the first philosophers to use the term cosmos to refer to the universe in this way. The â€Å"celestial music of the spheres† is the hauntingly beautiful phrase the Pythagoreans coined to describe the sound of the heavens as they rotate according to cosmic number and harmony. Xenophanes A fourth Ionian philosopher, Xenophanes of Colophon, born around 580 B. C. E. , s the first we know of to overtly attack the anthropomorphism of popular religious belief, in a series of brilliant reductio ad absurdum arguments. His own view has been understood, ever since Aristotle, as pantheistic. Xenophanes was also the first philosopher we know of to ask what degree of knowledge is attainable. In B34 we read: ‘‘the clear and certain truth no man has seen, nor will there be anyone who knows about the gods and what I say about all things. ’’ Several ancient critics took this to be an indication of Xenophanes’ total scepticism. On this basis of moderate empiricism and scepticism, Xenophanes offered a number of opinions of varying plausibility about the natural world, one of which—a strong, evolutionary interpretation of the discovery on various islands of fossils of marine animals—is enough to constitute a major claim to fame in natural philosophy and ranks with his other significant steps in epistemology (the theory of knowledge dealing with what we know, how we know it, and how reliable our knowledge is), logic (the study of rational inquiry and argumentation), and natural theology (the attempt to understand God from natural knowledge). Heraclitus One of the most important and enigmatic of the Presocratics, Heraclitus (fl . 500 b. c. e. , d. 510–480 b. c. e. ), said that ignorance is bound to result when we try to understand the cosmos when we do not even comprehend the basic structure of the human psyche (soul) and its relationship to the Logos. The complex Greek word logos is intriguing. It could and at times did mean all of the following: â€Å"intelligence,† â€Å"speech,† â€Å"discourse,† â€Å"thought,† â€Å"reason,† â€Å"word,† â€Å"meaning,† â€Å"study of,† â€Å"the record of,† â€Å"the science of,† â€Å"the fundamental principles of,† â€Å"the basic principles and procedures of a particular discipline,† â€Å"those features of a thing that make it intelligible to us,† and â€Å"the rationale for a thing. † The Heraclitean capital L Logos is like God, only without the anthropomorphizing (humanizing) of the earlier philosophers and poets who attributed human qualities to the gods. According to Heraclitus’s impersonal view of God, the Logos is a process, not an entity. As such, the Logos is unconcerned with individuals and human affairs, in much the same way that gravity affects us but is unconcerned with us. More radically yet, Heraclitus asserted that even though things appear to remain the same, â€Å"Change alone is unchanging. † Traditionally, it has been held that Heraclitus went so far as to claim that everything is always changing all the time. But whether he really meant that everything is always changing, or that individual things are held together by energy (change), remains unclear. Anaximenes Anaximander’s younger contemporary, Anaximenes, who lived during the sixth century B. C. E. appears to revert to a prior and less sophisticated vision in claiming that the earth, far from being a drum-shaped body held in equipoise at the center, is flat and ‘‘rides on,’’ supported by air. The same might be said of his contention that the basic, ‘‘divine’’ principle of things was not some indefinite entity but something very much part of our experience; namely, air. Anaximenes’ view would also no doubt have seemed to be corroborated by the fact that the universe, commonly understood as a living thing and hence needing a soul to vivify it, possessed in air that very ‘‘breath’’ that for most Greeks constituted the essence of such a soul. Parmenides Parmenides of Elea (fift h century b. c. e. ) radically transformed the early philosophers’ interest in cosmology, the study of the universe as a rationally ordered system (cosmos), into ontology, the study of being. By common agreement he was the giant among the pre-Socratics. According to Parmenides, none of his predecessors adequately accounted for the process by which the one basic stuff of the cosmos changes into the many individual things we experience every day. In his search for a solution to the problem of â€Å"the one and the many,† Parmenides turned to a reasoned analysis of the process of change itself. According to Parmenides, all sensations occur in the realm of appearance. This means that reality cannot be apprehended by the senses. Change and variety (the many) are only appearances; they are not real. If this is true, then our most commonly held beliefs about reality are mere opinions. The senses cannot recognize â€Å"what is,† much less can they discover—observe—it, ever. In other words, whatever we see, touch, taste, hear, or smell is not real, does not exist. Perhaps most unsettling of all, Parmenides â€Å"solved† the problem of the appearance of change by concluding—in direct opposition to Heraclitus’s insistence that everything is always changing—that the very concept of change is self-contradictory. What we think of as change is merely an illusion. The logic runs as follows: â€Å"Change† equals transformation into something else. When a thing becomes â€Å"something else,† it becomes what it is not. But since it is impossible for â€Å"nothing† (what is not) to exist, there is no â€Å"nothing† into which the old thing can disappear. (There is no â€Å"no place† for the thing to go into. ) Therefore, change cannot occur. Empedocles posited, against Parmenides, change and plurality as features of reality, but affirmed the eternality of anything that is real; the sphere-like nature of the real when looked at as a totality and the fact that the real is a plenum, containing no ‘‘nothingness’’ or ‘‘emptiness’’. Anaxagoras likewise posited change, plurality, and divisibility as features of reality, yet also affirmed the eternality of the real (understood by him as an eternally existent ‘‘mixture’’ of the ‘‘seeds’’ of the things currently constituting the world, rather than the eternal combinings and recombinings, according to certain ratios of admixture, of four eternally existent ‘‘roots’’ or elemental masses). Leucippus Leucippus of Miletus (c. fi ft h century b. c. e. ) and Democritus of Abdera (c. 460–370 b. . e. ) argued that reality consists entirely of empty space and ultimately simple entities that combine to form objects. T is materialistic view is known as atomism. Leucippus is credited with being the originator of atomism and Democritus with developing it. Rather than reject Parmenides’ assertion that change is an illusion, Leucippus argued that reality consists of many discrete â€Å"ones ,† or beings. Zeno Zeno, who was born early in the fifth century B. C. E. , was a friend and pupil of Parmenides. In his famous paradoxes he attempted to show by a series of reductio ad absurdum arguments, of which the best known is perhaps that of Achilles and the tortoise, the self-contradictory consequences of maintaining that there is a real plurality of things or that motion or place are real. The prima facie brilliance of many of the arguments continues to impress people, though it soon becomes clear that the paradoxes turn largely on the failure or unwillingness of Zeno, like so many Pythagoreans of the day, to distinguish between the concepts of physical and geometrical space. Zeno’s way of constructing the problem makes it seem that his primary object is to defame pluralists by attacking the logical possibility of explaining how there can be motion in the world. Gorgias Gorgias has achieved fame for the stress he laid upon the art of persuasion (‘‘rhetoric’’), although whether he wrote the baffling On What Is Not as a serious piece of persuasive reasoning or as some sort of spoof of the Eleatic philosophy of Parmenides and others remains disputed. Its basic, and remarkable, claim is prima facie, that nothing in fact is (exists /is the case [esti] or is knowable or conceivable. Any exiguous plausibility that the arguments supporting this claim possess turns on our overlooking Gorgias’s failure, witting or unwitting, to distinguish carefully between knowing and thinking, along with his various uses of the verb ‘‘to be. ’’ If the failure was witting, the document can be seen as a skillful device for the spotting of fallacies as part of training in rhetoric and basic reasoning. If it was unwitting, Gorgias still emerges as what he was claimed to be—a deft rhetorical wordsmith on any topic proposed to him. Protagoras Perhaps the greatest of the Sophists was Protagoras of Abdera (481– 411 b. c. e. ). Protagoras was an archetypal Sophist: an active traveler and first-rate observer of other cultures who noted that although there are a variety of customs and beliefs, each culture believes unquestioningly that its own ways are right—and roundly condemns (or at least criticizes) views that differ from its own. Based on his observations and travels, Protagoras concluded that morals are nothing more than the social traditions, or mores, of a society or group. The details of Protagoras’s beliefs remain disputed. When he said, for example, that ‘‘anthropos [humanity] is a/the measure for all things, of things that are, that they are, and of things that are not, that they are not,’’ it is unclear whether he is talking about one person or the sum total of persons; about ‘‘a’’ measure or ‘‘the’’ measure (there is no definite article in Greek); or about existence or states of affairs or both. The Platonic reading in the Theaetetus, which takes ‘‘anthropos’’ as generic and ‘‘measure’’ as exclusive, led to the assertion that the logical consequence was total (and absurd) relativism. ______________________________ References: The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. Richard H. Popkin. Columbia University Press. 1999. Archetypes of Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy. 7th ed. Douglas J. Soccio. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. 2010.